PERIYAR AND ANTI HINDI AGITATIONS.

 

Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy Naicker (later Periyar) was born at Erode in 1879 in a Kannada Balija merchant family. He had one elder brother and 2 sisters. He spoke Kannada, Telugu and Tamil. Ramasamy attended school only for 5 years and then joined his father’s trade at the age of 12. He used to listen to Tamil Vaishnavaite Gurus who gave discourses at his house and who enjoyed his father’s hospitality. At the age of 12 itself, he started questioning the contradictions in the Hindu mythological stories. As he grew up he came to the conclusion that religion is used to fool innocent people and took it on himself to warn people against superstitions and priests.

In 1904 he visited Kashi. There he saw the begging that takes place in the temple as well as floating bodies. At choultries when he was hungry, he was refused meals and only Brahmins were being fed. Then he disguised himself as a Brahmin wearing the sacred thread, but he was caught before he could have any food. Ultimately he had to satisfy his hunger with the leftovers on the street. This discriminatory attitude based on caste deeply troubled Ramasamy. The incidents that happened to him at Kashi made him turn into an atheist. He entered Kashi as a half-believer and left it as a non-believer.  

Ramasamy joined the Congress in 1919. Later he held the Chairmanship of Erode Municipality and furthered the Congress programs there. In 1922 he was elected President of the Madras Presidency Congress Committee at Tirupur where he strongly advocated for reservation in Government jobs and education. His attempts were however, defeated by the Congress party and he left the party in 1925. In 1929 Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste name Naicker from his name.

The Vaikom temple in the Kingdom of Travancore had strict laws of untouchability against which Ramasamy led an agitation. Not only were Dalit’s not allowed into this temple, they also could not walk in any of the adjoining by lanes that led to the temple. Gandhi finally reached an agreement with the Regent of Travancore after which they were allowed in all the by lanes except on the East side, finally only in 1936 all were allowed into the roads as well as into the temple.

Ramasamy founded the “Self Respect Movement” for equality and against blind customs, ceremonies and superstitious beliefs, full rights to women inter caste and inter-religious marriages, widow re marriages and so on. A Tamil weekly “Kudi Arasu” and an English journal “Revolt” were started to espouse the cause. The movement received the sympathy of the Justice Party.

To found the right ideological and administrative moorings for the Movement and studying social and political movements, Ramasamy visited Malaya, Singapore and then many countries of Europe including England, France, Spain, Germany and also Russia. He stayed in Russia for 3 months. This tour shaped the political ideology of his movement. On socio economic issues Ramasamy was a Marxist but he did not advocate abolition of private ownership.

In 1937 C Rajagopalachari became the CM of Madras Presidency and introduced Hindi as a compulsory language at schools. This led to a series of anti-Hindi agitations. The Justice Party and Ramasamy organised anti Hindi protests which ended after numerous arrests by the Rajaji Government. The agitation simmered for 3 years. 2 people were killed and 1198 jailed in the agitation which included women and children. The Government resigned in 1939 and the Governor Lord Erskine withdrew the mandatory Hindi education in 1940.

The Justice Party was formed in 1916 to oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups. Their goal was to render Justice to the non-Brahmin groups. Brahmanical priesthood, and Sanskrit social class-value hierarchy were blamed for the inequalities among the non-Brahmin caste groups. Ramasamy became the President of the Justice Party in 1939 and stayed so till 1944. 

When he was the President of the Justice Party in 1944, Ramasamy declared in a rally that from then onwards the party would be known as the Dravidar Khazagam. Hindi and ceremonies that had become associated with Brahmanical priesthood were identified by them as alien culture and came under verbal attack.

In 1949, Ramasamy’s chief lieutenant Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai established the Dravida Munnetra Khazagam due to differences between the two. Annadurai compromised with the Government at Delhi but advocated increased state independence. Later some people from the Dravidar Khazagam joined the DMK. Both the parties have carried out their Dravidian agenda.

In 1956 despite warnings Ramasamy organised a procession to Marina beach and burnt the pictures of Lord Rama. For this he was arrested and sent to prison. In 1958 he went to Bangalore for the All India Official language Conference where he advocated English to be the sole official language. Finally Ramasamy died in 1973 aged 94. 

It was Periyar who was an ideologue for the anti-Hindi agitation and it proceeded in later times in the following manner.

The largest anti Hindi agitation occurred from 1948 to 1950. After Independence, the central Government instructed all the states to make Hindi compulsory in schools. The Congress Government of Madras under Ramasamy Reddiar made Hindi compulsory in schools in 1948. Periyar again launched another agitation. Finally, there was a settlement between the Government and the agitators and the agitation was withdrawn. In 1950 Hindi is made an optional subject in schools by the Government.

There was a huge debate in the constituent assembly and pro Hindi and anti-Hindi factions debated fiercely with each other. Ultimately after 3 years of debate a compromise was arrived at by the constituent assembly in 1949 and it was called the Munshi-Ayyangar formula ( After KM Munshi and Gopalaswamy Ayyangar). Part XVII of the Indian constitution was drafted as per the compromise. It did not mention any national language; instead, it defined only the official languages of the Union. Hindi would be the official language of the Union and for 15 years English would be used for all official purposes.  After 5 years a language commission is to be appointed to recommend how to promote Hindi and phase out English.

By 1955, the Government started using Hindi along with English for all specific purposes of the Union. In the same year Nehru appointed the Official Language Commission which in 1956 recommended replacing English by Hindi. But the opposition to Hindi grew stronger and Rajaji who himself once made Hindi compulsory when he was CM opposed it now. Rajaji declared that Hindi is as foreign to non-Hindi speakers as English is to the Hindi speakers. DMK went as far as secession if Hindi is imposed. Finally, in 1959 Nehru gave an assurance to non-Hindi speakers that they can have English as an alternate official language as long as they wanted.   

When Shastri became the PM in 1964 there were fears because Shastri, and his senior cabinet colleagues Moraraji Desai and Gulzarilal Nanda were strong Hindi protagonists.

In 1965 there was a massive anti-Hindi agitation in Tamilnadu and paramilitary had to be called in and 70 people died (unofficial reports put the death toll at 500) and there was huge rioting in the state and mobs killed 2 policemen. Violence gradually increased and even the students lost control of the agitation. Then 2 central ministers C. Subramaniyam and Alagesan resigned in protest against the centre's language policy. President S. Radhakrishnan refused to accept the resignations despite Shastri’s recommendation to do so. Shastri then backed down and made a broadcast on the Radio that he was shocked by the agitation and promised to honour Nehru’s assurances on English.    

IIT JEE, AIEEE & NEET COACHING CENTRES OF KOTA.

 

Kota in Rajasthan is a coaching factory for students. It is very popular for coaching and annually about 150,000 students join the 13 large and 50 smaller coaching centres there. Coaching centres are the economic base of Kota generating about Rs 7000 crores annually for the city’s economy.  

Students come here for getting coached in IIT-JEE, NEET & AIEEE.

The foundation of the coaching industry at Kota was laid by V.K. Bansal in the 1980’s who was an Engineer at the JK Synthetics factory. He began his teaching career by giving maths tuitions to local students. Slowly his students started clearing the IIT exams. In 1986 when a student called Sanjay Arora topped the IIT Exam Kota came into the limelight. Bansal had 13 of his students cracking the IIT in 1990. In the mid 1990’s when the JK Synthetics factory was closed several Engineers joined the Bansals classes for teaching.

With the success of Bansal’s classes many, big Corporates in education have set up their own coaching centres at Kota taking the student intake to as much as 2,50,000 students a year. 

Currently Kota is home to 9 major coaching giants; 

Allen, Resonance, Bansals, Motion, Unacademy, Physics Wallah, Career Point, Akash and Sarvottam. 

Obviously a curriculum based on cracking competitive exams based on rigorous drilling rather than assessing the students' minds is faulty and places great stress on their minds. The students who cannot cope, feel intense pressure so it is no wonder that till the year 2017, 57 students have committed suicide at Kota. These suicides accelerated in the succeeding years.

Of the 1 million students who take the IIT JEE exam only 10,000 qualify for the 23 IIT’s. Of the 2 million who take the NEET exam, only 140,000 get a seat at a medical college.

Following are the figures of those students who got selected in the year 2022 in IIT JEE.

16 lac students qualified for the JEE advanced 2022. Of that 16335 students could make it to the IIT’s. Of this 2184 students or 13.4% are from Rajasthan alone with most of them coming from Kota.

In the year 2022, the IIT selections from various states are shown below:

1.     Rajasthan                 2184

2.     UP                            2131

3.     Maharashtra             1747

4.     Telanagana              1644

5.     Andhra Pradesh       1428

Coaching centres give students a gruelling schedule of 18 hours a day for 7 days a week without any time for leisure. They have fortnightly exams with marks and rank in the exams being the most important issue for a student, putting intense pressure on them to perform. The problem further intensifies when middle-class families take loans for the student to study at the coaching centres as they are expensive and they cannot afford it.

If a family takes such a loan and the student is not able to perform due to lack of ability that would create a big guilty feeling in them crushing them altogether and putting them under immense pressure and helplessness. Mostly it is those students who break down and commit suicide. 

A big coaching centre like Allen has 50 psychiatrists and counsellors on the campus but even that is of no use due to the intense pressure on the students. Moreover, the annual fees range around Rs 150,000 a year, and on top of that the boarding and lodging also has to be taken care of. Even at a conservative estimate, the student expenses are taken as Rs 1,20,000 per year then the annual expense for his family on education would be Rs 2,70,000 per student.

In the year 2023 alone in Kota 27 students have committed suicide unable to bear with the pressure. Perhaps lots of pressure comes in from unrealistic parents who cannot assess the ability of their children and push them to achieve the moon. That is when the students break down because they love their parents but their ability is just not enough to achieve the wishes of the parents. 

These suicides have brought in legislation from the Government this year that students younger than 16 years cannot be joined in coaching centres, as well as the Guidelines for Registration and Regulation of coaching centres. That has drastically cut the fresh intake of students to Kota by as much as 50,000 or about 30% and the city of Kota is really feeling that pinch.

Kota institutes have teachers with a salary range of Rs 10 lacs to 25 lacs and Elite teachers who draw Rs 1 crore plus. Obviously the teachers would be squeezed now due to lowered income.

INDIANS IN THE USA AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION.

 

Before this I have always thought that number of Indian Americans is only 2^nd after the Chinese in the USA. However, the latest data says Indian Americans are the most numerous Asians in the US as of now.

Currently there are 5.1 million Indian Americans in the US, while the US population is estimated to be 34.60 crores. So Indian Americans account for 1.47% of the US population. The American Chinese number only 4.7 million making them 2^nd most populous among Asian countries.

Indians contribute about USD 300 billion in tax to the Federal treasury while the total US tax revenue is 4.92 trillion USD. So Indian Americans contribute about 6.1% of the American tax revenue which is about 4 times their proportion of the population.

A 2019 survey has shown that Indian American households have a median annual income of 132,000 USD compared to 64,000 USD for all immigrants and 66,000 USD for American households. According to the 2023 American census data the Indian American Median income has gone up to 157,000 USD.

The World Bank pegs the per capita of the US to be 81,695 USD in 2023. That means the average per capita income of Indian Americans would be 4 times based on the tax they pay and should be around 325,000 USD. That is very high indeed and is at variance with the American Indian median family income given in the earlier paragraph. This high figure on extrapolation certainly shocks me and our friends in the US would be able to throw more light on that.

Among the states, California has the highest Indian American population at over 830,000. Texas has the 2^nd highest at over 480,000, New Jersey 3rd with over 415,000, and New York 4^th with over 387,000.

In the least numbers, Wyoming just has 522 Indian Americans living in the state, Montana just 726, and Alaska 857.

All the above figures are from the year 2022 and it is likely that the number would be higher now in all the states.

Language-wise as per 2021 data there were over 864,000 Hindi speaking, over 507,000 Urdu speaking, over 459,000  Telugu-speaking, over 436,000 Gujarati, over 403,000 Bengali, over 341,000 Tamil, and over 318,000 Punjabi.

Telugu people in the USA numbered a mere 67543 in the year 2000. Today in 2024 there are 12, 39,000 Telugu people in the USA and they account for 24% of the Indian population in the USA. Between the years 2010-2021, in 11 years’ time, their population has gone up by 111%.

A study conducted by Dukes University-UC Berkeley revealed that between the years 1995 and 2005; Indian immigrants have founded more Engineering and Tech companies than the immigrants for the UK, China, Taiwan and japan combined.

Indian Americans have also risen to the top positions at many major companies. The list includes

1.       Google

2.       Microsoft

3.       Facebook

4.       IBM

5.       Pepsico

6.       Mastercard

7.       Cisco

8.       Oracle

9.       Adobe

10.   Cognizant

11.   Sun Microsystems

12.   Softbank

Indian Americans continuously outpace every other ethnic group socioeconomically in the USA. Indians form the largest group of physicians after Hispanics and account for 6% of all doctors in the USA.  

HISTORY OF THE USA IN BRIEF.

 

The land that became the USA later was inhabited for 60,000 years. The people who colonized it as well as the other parts of the Americas probably came from Asia then. Their descendants are the American Indians.

Christopher Columbus the Spanish explorer first discovered the Americas in 1492 and changed its history. The subsequent European colonization and exploitation had a terrible effect on the American Indians. Many died of diseases carried by the Europeans and others were killed in warfare and forced into slavery.

The Spanish established colonies in the West Indies, Mexico, Central America and South America. The first Spanish explorer to reach the shores of the US was Juan Ponce De Leon in the year 1513 when he landed at Florida and claimed it for his country. Later Spin established control over the territory of what is now the South Western USA. This comprised of Arizona and New Mexico along with the adjacent portions to them in California, Colorado, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas and Utah. It was then that France and England too entered the US.

Though the Englishman John Cabot explored the coast of Eastern Canada in 1497 England laid claim to the entire North America based on that voyage.   In 1524 a French expedition of Giovanni de Verrazano explored the North American coast from  North Carolina onwards to Canada.

The English first found their settlement in USA at Jamestown Virginia in the year 1607.

The second American Colony of the British was Plymouth which was founded by the Pilgrims in the year 1620. The Pilgrims were a branch of Protestants who left England because they took objections to the practices adopted by the Church of England. They crossed the Atlantic in their ship The Mayflower and landed at a place which later became the colony of Massachusetts. Another group of Protestants named the Puritans who similarly left England founded the colony of Massachusetts Bay in 1630. Plymouth was later merged with Massachusetts. English colonies spread along the coast near Massachusetts and Virginia in the 1620’s and 1630’s. New Hampshire came into being in 1623. Then came Connecticut in 1635 and Rhode Island in 1636. Maryland also became a colony in 1634.

In the year 1624 Dutch settlers founded a colony called New Netherland near the Hudson River. In 1664 the English seized the Dutch Colony and changed its name to New York. In the same year the English also seized New Jersey and Delaware from the Dutch. In 1681 the colony of Pennsylvania was founded by the Quaker William Penn. South of Virginia the land known as Carolina was settled by the English and the territory was divided into North and South Carolina in 1729. Georgia was the last of the 13 colonies and was settled in 1733.   

Life in the colonies was influenced by the ways of the Native American Tribes who lived there before they arrived. The colonists adopted their foods, herbs, method of raising crops, war techniques and words. Over the years however, the relations between them soared and led them into a conflict.

Most of the English colonies established assemblies similar to the English Parliament. However, only citizens who owned property or paid taxes were allowed to vote.  

Most of the English settlers were farmers and they had to grow their own food. However, gradually the living patterns changed. New England (Comprising of the 6 states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont) started livestock raising, lumbering, shipbuilding and fishing. The Southern colonies grew tobacco, rice and Indigo. The Southern plantations had slave labour brought in from Africa.  

The colonies then gradually developed religious freedom, education, travel, communication and self-government. These led to rapid population growth. In the year 1700 only 250,000 people lived in the 13 colonies. By 1760 that reached 1.7 million. This was also due to the rapid influx of slave labour. As the population of the colonies grew they started expanding west and in the process came into conflict with the American Indians already living there. The Europeans won more and more battles with the natives pushing them further from their homelands.

The French have settled in the Saint Lawrence valley, the great lakes region and the Mississippi valley.  The expansion of the colonies brought the English and the French into conflict. As there was a bitter rivalry between France and England in Europe, the same hostility was there between the French and the English colonists and when there were 3 wars between France and England IN Europe, the respective wars were also fought in America.  

The wars in America between the English and the French finally ended in 1763 and the English were victorious and got control over all French lands in Canada and between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi river.  

After the war ended the English tried to tighten the control over the 13 colonies which were till then loosely governed. The British Parliament passed several laws to tax the colonial trade which was roundly opposed by the colonists and many did not pay the taxes and organized protests and sometimes clashed with the British forces. In 1770 British soldiers fired into an angry mob which killed 5 people at Boston. That was known as the Boston massacre.  

In 1773 in protest for tax on tea, some colonists disguised as American Indians boarded British ships and dumped the stock of tea into Boston harbour. That is known as the Boston Tea Party.  After the event the British Parliament passed more restrictive laws that angered the colonists even more.

In 1774 a meeting of all the 13 colonies took place to decide the British issue known as the First Continental Congress. A majority of the colonies favoured putting pressure on England by refusing to trade with England. However, that did not work out and April 1775 fighting broke out between the British and the Colonists in Concord and Lexington in the colony of Massachusetts. This battle began the American Revolution.

The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1775 where the representatives chose George Washington to command the Colonial troops.

In 1776, Thomas Jefferson and other representatives drafted a statement calling for separation from Britain. This document called the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the 2^nd Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.

The war of Independence did not favour the colonist if the initial stages and the British troops had the upper hand. Washington barely managed to keep the army intact with defeats and lack of supplies. Luckily, the battle turned in favour of the Colonist in 1777 when the British were defeated in the battle of Saratoga in New York.

After that victory France joined the colonist in the war against Britain. The fighting ended in 1781 when the British surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia. By the treaty of Paris in 1783, Britain recognised the Independence of the American colonies. The new nation extended from Canada in the North to Florida on the South and westward to river Mississippi. 

After Independence people started moving towards the West between the Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi river. Kentucky state was created in 1792 and Tennessee in 1796.

At that time New Orleans and the surrounding area were French territories. Thomas Jefferson was elected the President of the US in the year 1800 and in 1803 he decided that the Us should buy the land owned by the French from New Orleans and the land along the lower Mississippi river from France. France in turn agreed to sell all its land to the US for USD 15 million then. This purchase nearly doubled the size of the Unites States.  In 1819 Spain agreed to a treaty and gave Florida to the United States.

During the early 1800’s Spanish colonies in South America declared themselves independent. Spain tried to regain control over those colonies and some European powers appeared ready to help Spain. Then the US President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. The doctrine stated that North and South America were no longer open to colonization and that the US would not allow anyone to interfere in the affairs of the countries of North and South America.

డేవిడ్ హ్యూమ్

 

అతను 3 ప్రసిద్ధ బ్రిటిష్ అనుభూతి వాదులలో చివరివాడు. మొదటి ఇద్దరు జాన్ లాక్ మరియు జార్జ్ బర్కిలీ. జాన్ లాక్ ఒక బ్రిటిష్ తత్వవేత్త, జార్జ్ బర్కిలీ ఒక ఐరిష్ వేదాంతవేత్త మరియు తత్వవేత్త, చివరిగా హ్యూమ్ ఒక స్కాటిష్ మేధావి. వారు ముగ్గురు బ్రిటిష్ అనుభూతి  వాదానికి త్రిమూర్తులవంటి వారు.

హ్యూమ్, లాక్ చెప్పిన పూర్వ అంతర్గత (apriori) భావాలను తిరస్కరించాడు. లాక్ ప్రకారం 3 ఎంటిటీలు ఉన్నాయి; అవి గ్రహించే మనస్సు, అవగాహన ద్వారా మనస్సు రూపొందించిన ఆలోచనలు (మానసిక స్థితి) మరియు ఆ ఆలోచనలకు దారితీసే నిజమైన భౌతిక విషయం.

బర్కిలీ వచ్చి నిజమైన భౌతిక విషయం అవగాహనలోకి రానందున దానిని అతను తిరస్కరించి మనసు మరియు ఆలోచనలను మాత్రమే మిగిల్చాడు. 

హ్యూమ్ వచ్చి, మనస్సు కూడా మన అవగాహనలోకి రానందున మనస్సును కూడా తిరస్కరించి కేవలం ఆలోచనలను ( మానసిక స్థితి) మాత్రమే వదిలివేసాడు. హ్యూమ్ ప్రకారం మనస్సు లేదు, అలాగే పదార్థం కూడా లేదు, ఉన్నది కేవలం మానసిక స్థితి మాత్రమే.

అతని సమకాలీన తత్వవేత్తలు హ్యూమ్ యొక్క పోస్ట్యులేట్‌లను చూసి ఆశ్చర్యపోయారు. గ్రహించే ఏజెంట్ అయిన మనస్సును హ్యూమ్ ఎలా తిరస్కరించగలడు అని వారు ఆలోచించారు? ఆయన చెప్పిన దానిని వారు అసంబద్ధ తత్వశాస్త్రంగా భావించి, ఆయనను గొప్ప నాస్తికుడిగా భావించారు.

బెర్ట్రాండ్ రస్సెల్ తన హిస్టరీ ఆఫ్ ఫిలాసఫీలో హ్యూమ్‌పై ప్రత్యేక శ్రద్ధ పెట్టాడు. హ్యూమ్ అనుభవవాదాన్ని దాని ఔన్నత్యానికి తీసుకెళ్లడమే కాకుండా, ఇంక ముందుకు పోలేనంత అసాధ్యమైన ఇరుకు సందులో వదిలేసాడు అని ఆయన భావించాడు.

డేవిడ్ హ్యూమ్ 1711లో ఎడిన్‌బర్గ్‌లోని సంపన్న కుటుంబంలో జన్మించాడు. అతనికి చాలా చిన్న వయస్సులోనే అతని తండ్రి మరణించాడు మరియు అతని తల్లి అతనిని చదివించింది. అతను ఎడిన్‌బర్గ్ విశ్వవిద్యాలయంలో తత్వశాస్త్రం మరియు సాహిత్యంలో ప్రధాన విద్యను అభ్యసించాడు. ప్రసిద్ధ తత్వవేత్త కావడమే అతని జీవిత లక్ష్యం.

1734 లో అతను ఫ్రాన్స్‌కు వెళ్లి అక్కడ నుండి తన మొదటి పుస్తకం "ట్రీటైజ్ ఆన్ హ్యూమన్ నేచర్" రాశాడు. దురదృష్టవశాత్తు అతని పుస్తకం గురించి ఎవరూ పట్టించుకోలేదు. అతను చివరకు ఎడిన్‌బర్గ్ అడ్వకేట్స్ లైబ్రరీలో లైబ్రేరియన్‌గా చేరాడు. ఆ తర్వాత ఇంగ్లండ్ చరిత్రను రచించాడు, దానికి మంచి ఆదరణ లభించింది. 

1738లో అతను తన మునుపటి రచన "ట్రీటైజ్ ఆన్ హ్యూమన్ నేచర్"ని సంక్షిప్తీకరించి దానిని "మానవ అవగాహనకు సంబంధించిన విచారణ" అని తిరిగి వ్రాసాడు. అది అతనికి గొప్ప కీర్తిని సంపాదించిపెట్టింది మరియు అతని పేరు యూరప్ అంతటా వ్యాపించింది. అతని పుస్తకాలు ఫ్రెంచ్‌తో సహా ఇతర భాషల్లోకి అనువదించబడ్డాయి. ఆ తర్వాత అతను మరిన్ని పుస్తకాలు రాశాడు, అవి అతనికి ఇంకా కీర్తి మరియు పేరు తెచ్చాయి.

హ్యూమ్ యూరప్‌లో విస్తృతంగా పర్యటించాడు, మరియు ఆనాటి యురోపియన్ మేధావులతో పరిచయం పొందాడు. ఆ తర్వాత హ్యూమ్ బ్రిటీష్ రాయబారి సెక్రటరీగా పారిస్ వెళ్లాడు. ఫ్రెంచ్ ప్రజలు అతని గ్రంధాలను, తత్వాన్ని ఎంతో మెచ్చుకున్నారు మరియు అతనికి బ్రహ్మ రధం పట్టారు. ఫ్రెంచ్ రాజు, రాయల్టీ మరియు మేధావులు అతనిని ప్రశంసించడంలో ఒకరితో ఒకరు పోటీ పడ్డారు. రూసో అతనికి ఇష్టమైన వారిలో ఒకరు. హ్యూమ్ అతన్ని లండన్‌కు తీసుకువచ్చి అతనికి ఆశ్రయం ఇచ్చాడు, కాని రూసో అస్థిరమైన మనస్సుతో ఉండేవాడు. తరువాత హ్యూమ్‌తో కలహించి ఫ్రాన్స్‌కు తిరిగి వెళ్ళాడు.

1776లో హ్యూమ్ బ్రిటీష్ ప్రభుత్వంలో స్కాట్లాండ్ వ్యవహారాల ఇన్‌ఛార్జ్‌గా చేరాడు, అయితే అతని ఆరోగ్యం నెమ్మదిగా క్షీణించింది మరియు అతను క్యాన్సర్‌తో బాధపడ్డాడు మరియు చివరకు 1776లో మరణించాడు.

ఒక వ్యక్తిగా హ్యూమ్ ఎప్పుడూ సంతోషంగా ఉండేవాడు. అతనికి ఏదైనా ఎదురు దెబ్బ తగిలినా సరే ఎప్పుడూ బాధపడేవాడు కాదు. అంతేకాక ఆయన ఎల్లప్పుడూ ఆశాజనకంగా ఉండేవాడు. అతను హాస్యాస్పదంగా మాట్లాడేవాడు, క్యాన్సర్‌తో బాధపడుతున్నప్పుడు కూడా అతను మరణంపై జోకులు వేసాడు.

తాత్విక ఆలోచనలు:

అతని కంటే ముందు అనుభూతివాదానికి తత్వ వేత్త అయిన లాక్ మనస్సు, ఆలోచనలు మరియు ఆ ఆలోచనలకు దారితీసిన భౌతిక వస్తువును విశ్వసించాడు.

అప్పుడు బర్కిలీ వచ్చి, భౌతిక విషయం ఉనికిలో ఉందో లేదో తెలుసుకోవడానికి మార్గం లేదు, ఎందుకంటే అది మన ఇంద్రియాల్లోకి రాదు అని చెప్పి దానిని తిరస్కరించాడు. దానిని తిరస్కరించి మనస్సు మరియు ఆలోచనలను మాత్రమే వదిలివేసాడు. అప్పుడు హ్యూమ్ అడుగు పెట్టాడు.  మరి మనస్సు కూడా మన ఉనికిలో లేదు, ఎందుకంటే అది కేవలం ఆలోచనల సమాహారం కాబట్టి  ఆలోచనలు మాత్రమే నిజమైనవి అని చెప్పి అతను మనస్సును కూడా తిరస్కరించాడు.

హ్యూమ్‌కి మానవుడు కేవలం ఆలోచనల సమాహారమే తప్ప మరేమీ కాదు. 

బర్కిలీ ఒక కాథలిక్ బిషప్. లాక్ యొక్క అనుభూతివాదం ఒక వ్యక్తిని నాస్తికుడిగా  మారుస్తుందని అతను భావించాడు. అందువల్ల అతను దేవుని ఆలోచనను పునరుద్ధరించడానికి మరియు అతనిని కేంద్రానికి తీసుకురావడానికి తన తత్వశాస్త్రాన్ని వాడుకున్నాడు.

బర్కిలీ ఆలోచనను మనం ఈ విధంగా సంగ్రహించవచ్చు. ఏదైనా భౌతిక వస్తువు మనస్సులో ఒక ఆలోచన ఉన్నంత వరకు మాత్రమే ఉంటుంది కానీ దానికి ఎటువంటి స్వతంత్ర ఉనికి ఉండదు. నేను లేదా మరొకరు కావచ్చు లేదా ఇంకా ఎవరు కూడా దానిని గురించి ఆలోచించకపోయినా సరే దేముడు దానిని నిత్యం గా  ఆలోచిస్తూ ఉంటాడు కాబట్టి అది ఉనికి లో ఉంటుంది.

కాబట్టి భగవంతుడు లేకుంటే ప్రపంచమూ లేదు, ఎందుకంటే దానిని నిరంతరం గ్రహించేవారు ఎవరూ లేరు. కాబట్టి ప్రపంచం ఉనికిలో ఉండాలంటే దేవుడు తప్పనిసరిగా ఉనికిలో ఉండాలని బర్కిలీ నొక్కి చెప్పాడు. చివరకు ఈ సిద్ధాంతం ద్వారా దేవుని ఉనికిని నిరూపించినందుకు బర్కిలీ సంతోషించాడు. వాస్తవానికి అదే కదా అతని తత్వశాస్త్రం యొక్క ప్రధాన లక్ష్యం.

హ్యూమ్ ప్రకారం,  ప్రపంచం ఉనికిని నిరూపించడం కోసం బర్కిలీ దేవుడు అనే భావనను తీసుకువచ్చాడు మరియు ఎవరూ దానిని అనుసరించకపోయినా ప్రపంచం దేవుడి ఆలోచనగా కొనసాగుతుందని చెప్పారు. ఆలోచనలు ఇంద్రియ గ్రహణశక్తి ద్వారా మాత్రమే ఏర్పడతాయని చెప్పి, ఆపై మన ఇంద్రియ గ్రహణశక్తి అవగాహనకు మించిన భగవంతుని భావనను బర్కిలీ తన తత్వానికి అరువుగా తీసుకున్నాడు అని అని హ్యూమ్ చెప్పాడు. ఈ రెండు భావనలు స్వీయ-విరుద్ధమైనవి అని అందువలన అవి నిజం కాలేవు అని ఆయన చెప్పాడు.

ఈ విధంగా హ్యూమ్ చెప్పడం వలన అనుభూతి వాదానికి చివరికి  కేవలం భావనలు మాత్రమే మిగిలాయి. హ్యూమ్ యొక్క తత్వశాస్త్రం యొక్క ఒక ముఖ్యమైన అంశం ఏమిటంటే, అతను "కారణవాదం" తిరస్కరించాడు, అంటే ఒక సంఘటన  ఇతర సంఘటనలకు దారి తీయదు మరియు ప్రతి భావం స్వతంత్రంగా  ఉంటుంది. కార్య కారణ సంబంధం అనేది ఏదీ లేదు అని ఆయన చెప్పాడు. ప్రతి ఆలోచన మరియు అవగాహన మరొకదాని నుండి స్వతంత్రంగా ఉంటుందని అతను చెప్పాడు. వాటికి నిజానికి అలాంటి కార్య కారణ సంబంధం  ఉన్నా కూడా దానికి కారణం మన ఆలోచనలోకి రాదు. అలాంటప్పుడు మన ఆలోచనలోకి రానిది మనకు ఉండదు కూడా.

కొన్ని కారణాలు కొన్ని కార్యాల నుండి వచ్చినట్టు  మనకు కనిపించవచ్చు. కానీ అవి మనకు ఒకదాని తర్వాత ఒకటి మన దగ్గరకు చేరి ప్రభావం కారణం నుండి వచ్చిందని నమ్మేలా చేస్తుంది. 

లాక్ మరియు బర్కిలీ తత్వాలలోని లోపాలను ఎత్తి చూపడం ద్వారా హ్యూమ్ అనుభవవాదాన్ని అత్యున్నత స్థాయికి తీసుకెళ్లాడు. అతను తరువాతి పాశ్చాత్య తత్వవేత్తలను విపరీతంగా ప్రభావితం చేశాడు; ప్రత్యేకంగా ఇమ్మాన్యుయేల్ కాంట్ ను. హ్యూమ్ యొక్క తత్వశాస్త్రం తనను తాత్విక నిద్ర నుండి మేల్కొలిపిందని కాంట్ చెప్పాడు.