VOLTAIRE

Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet) was born in 1694 at Paris. His father was a Notary and belonged to the middle class. Voltaire was born with a weak and unhealthy constitution. The midwife who delivered him said that he would not survive more than 4 days but Voltaire lived for 84 years despite always being unhealthy. 

Voltaire looked ugly with a long nose, a long face with spots on it, sunken eyes and flat cheeks. But the ugliness is only in looks but not for the mind. His roving mind was incisive with scintillating intellect that is uncompromisingly brave.

From the time he entered into his teens till the time he died Voltaire did not put down his pen and did not shut his critical mouth. From his pen flowed novels, plays, short stories, histories, musical plays, essays, philosophical and scientific treatises. Apart from those he wrote about 10,000 letters to many people.

Wherever there is Voltaire there have to be scholarly discussions. The discussions were brightened by his incisive and incessant wit. 

Voltaire did not write in vain, he always had a purpose for his writings. In his writings he tore to bits the contemporary society, its evil practices, its decadence, its superstitious beliefs, religious practices and also the tyranny of the king himself. He used his pen as a sword to tear the system apart and his words shot out like lances landing deep into the hearts of the people.  

Voltaire’s time was the 17^th & 18^th centuries and to utter and write such things required lots and lots of guts. In France Louis IX was the monarch and he considered himself as the state. Any dissent was ruthlessly suppressed and confined to the Bastille prison which was a living hell. 

Finally the French had their revolution in 1789. The minds of the people were made ready for the revolution mainly by Voltaire and Rousseau. Of course there were many others too who contributed but these two had the primacy in shaping the people’s minds.

Rousseau and Voltaire although contributed to the same cause are like the North and the South poles, diametrically opposite in ways of thought. Voltaire was an intellectual who relied on the mind while Rousseau was a thinker who relied on the heart. Both of them have made philosophy available to the common man by way of stories, novels and other means propelling the people’s minds towards democracy.  

Voltaire’s writings not only entertained the people but they also made them think about the contemporary systems as he himself did. It is said that possibly till date the French language did not have another proponent as clear, beautiful, powerful and astute as Voltaire. Of course today his writings seem outdated and no one reads them as they addressed the contemporary society at that time. Yet, his works like Candide, Micromegas, Zadig and  his innumerable letters still entertains people.

Voltaire was educated well by his father. He was joined in the Jesuit College. His father wanted him to go into business and should get married to a rich man’s daughter. However, Voltaire did not listen to his father. He believed that literature is his field. His father chided him that literature does not give food. 

His father felt that Voltaire could not start a business and joined him in an employment with the French Ambassador at The Hague. There Voltaire fell in love with a poor girl and wanted to run away with her but his father threatened him that he would get him arrested and brought him back to Paris.  

Voltaire is continually critical of things be it orally or in his writings. He is constantly using his wit on everyone, especially on the courtiers of the King and also his family members. His words used to get circulated all over Paris and any comment on a courtier was taken to have originated from Voltaire. By that time Louis IX died and the infant Louis XV became king. A critical comment on the Regent ruling on behalf of the king was attributed to Voltaire and he was arrested and thrown into the Bastille where he remained for 11 months. He changed his name to Voltaire in the prison and took the opportunity to write his great epic “Henriad”.

After getting released from prison too Voltaire’s criticism on the intolerance of religion and the tyranny of the king did not stop. He was fearlessly brave and did not pull any punches. At that time he wrote a tragic play “Eedip” which was enacted in a prominent theatre of Paris. His play was a great success and the French realized his brilliance when he was only just 23-24 years old and money just poured in. From that time onwards there was no stopping Voltaire and both his fame and money grew. Voltaire was as brilliant in speculation, as he was in literature; he invested the money wisely in speculation and made even more money.    

He once had a quarrel regarding a woman with an aristocrat named Chevalier De Rohan. One day when Voltaire was with his friends Rohan came and insulted him. True to his brilliance Voltaire insulted him right back. Next day when Voltaire was alone Rohan got him beaten by 6 hooligans. 

Voltaire was very angry and learnt sword fighting in the night. Next day he invited Rohan to a one to one sword combat. Rohan did not want to take a chance and reported the matter to the police and so Voltaire went back to the Bastille again. The officials later released him but expelled him from France for 3 years. Voltaire chose England for his exile. 

After reaching England, in just 3 months time Voltaire learnt to read and write English. He read the top English literature and the scientific treatises. Shakespeare’s plays did not appeal to him and Volatire found them to be coarse. He read the philosophy of John Locke thoroughly and got influenced by it. He read the scientific treatises of Newton (who died after Voltaire reached England) and considered him as his guru.  

Voltaire was impressed by England. He termed England as a nation of merchants but was impressed by the freedom of speech, religious tolerance and compared them to that of France which was way below on them and felt bad.  

After his exile of 3 years Voltaire came back to Paris and for some time lived comfortably. Suddenly someone got hold of the letters wrote by him to his friends and got them printed as a book. As usual Voltaire did not pull any punches in his letters on the system. The officials then got copies of the book burnt and issued a warrant to arrest Voltaire. For a change this time he decided to flee. 

Voltaire fled to a place called “Siree” in the state of Champagne where a tributary king Marquis Du Chatelet gave him shelter in his court while his wife Madame Du Chatelet gave him a place in her heart. Not only was the Madame beautiful, she was a French Natural Philosopher, physicist and mathematician herself. She translated Newton’s Book “Principia Mathematica” into French. 

While the Marquis was busy in wars and was traveling, she had a good time with Voltaire. This news spread all over France. The Marquis knew about the affair too but chose to keep quiet. 

Voltaire spent 17 years in Siree. The entire day by the Madame and Voltaire was spent in their rooms busy in their writings, and scientific experiments. Men of learning came to the estate from all over Europe to meet Voltaire. At 9 PM in the night both Voltaire and the Madame presented themselves before the visitors. Then there were discussions on many topics. Voltaire used to present to them his own plays and also use to act in them. Slowly the Madame lost interest in Voltaire and gave shelter to a young poet. This made Voltaire jealous but anyway the Madame fell ill and died. Her death shook Voltaire and grieved him very much. He wanted to go back to Paris but the officials did not let him set his foot there. 

Voltaire was unable to decide what is to be done when Frederic the Great of Prussia invited him to Prussia. Voltaire went to Berlin. He lived 3 years there and again continued with his writings, discussions and his criticism.  

Slowly Frederic got fed of Volatire and Voltaire came to know about it. He searched around, but did not get shelter anywhere and finally, he settled on the border between France and Switzerland named Ferney. 

He purchased a big estate there and built a garden. As usual many philosophers and writers visited him in Ferney and again the discussions continued. By that time he became old and was over 60 years, but in his case as his body atrophied his mind flowered more and more. His writings became more varied and diverse. In the last 20 years he stayed at Ferney, he wrote many novels, dramas, stories, letters, histories, philosophical treatises, and other writings and rained them on Paris. The French people got soaked in Voltaire’s writings and were strongly influenced by him. He tore apart the religious superstitions of the time and also the meanness and crookedness of the human race. His famous novel “Candide” written during the time strongly reflects this tendency. He also financed, managed and turned Ferney into a watch making town. 

At that time a French Encyclopedia was being compiled by the Encyclopedists led by Diderot. The idea behind this is to present to the general public the scientific developments, to inculcate in them a spirit of rebellion, to tear apart superstitions and even present a sort of atheism. Voltaire wrote some parts of the French Encyclopedia. 

Voltaire felt that there was a God. He said that it is very clear from nature. He asked as to if there was no God then how did creation come about? He felt like Plato much before him that if there is no God then it is necessary to invent him. 

As per Voltaire God has created the world, but then left it to itself and does not interfere in it, and the world goes on by itself. God does not interfere in either the world or in the lives of men. He does not listen the prayers and care about the welfare of mankind. Such a belief is known as “Deism.” 

He himself was born in a Roman Catholic family but was highly critical of Christianity as well as Judaism and Islam. Voltaire praised Hinduism stating that Hindus were a peaceful innocent people, equally incapable of hurting others or defending themselves.    

Voltaire then created a Philosophical Dictionary. He took all the aspects of philosophy then present and used all his enormous knowledge and his experiments and presented in it. This single handed effort to create a massive encyclopedia in beautiful prose gives the incisiveness and breadth of his thought. 

He was 84 years old and was slowly moving towards his death. He wanted to visit Paris before he died. He took his latest play “Irene” and started for Paris in a horse drawn carriage despite the warning of his doctor not to do so.    

Paris laid the Red Carpet for him and he was massively popular. France was then ruled by Louis XVI and the entire populace of Paris paid him their respects and showed their following towards Voltaire. When his play “Irene” was played in a theatre it was absolutely full and after the play there was a thunderous applause. The people surrounded him respectfully and did not let him move. Voltaire was shaken by the immense love Paris had shown to him. His weak body could not take in the intensity of it and he fell ill. Finally he died in 1778 filled with honor and happiness. Perhaps very few people in the world could have a death like Voltaire’s. It is a great coincidence that his rival in thought Rousseau too died n the same year.  

The officials did not let the body Voltaire get buried in Paris and it had to be  buried somewhere else. When the French Revolution took place in 1789, the Bastille which was seen as a symbol of cruel tyranny was razed down by the people. On its remains the people laid the physical remains of Voltaire as his final victory over the French mind.  

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU

“Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains” This is a statement made by Jean Jacques Rousseau which was later incorporated in the Communist Manifesto by Marx. Rousseau influenced Marx.

Rousseau reminds us of the French Revolution. While Voltaire was the mind of the French revolution Rousseau was its heart. For the French Revolutionaries “Social Contract” written by Rousseau is like a bible. Robespierre the leader of the French Revolution is a great fan of Rousseau. 

Rousseau originated the Romanticist movement of  Europe which influenced intellectuals, writers and artists in Europe. 

Rousseau is so different from the philosophers we know. He did not search for any metaphysical truths. In fact he is not even a philosopher in the strict sense of the term. He is a spokesman of the modern age. He influenced politics, arts, literature, psychology and ethics. He is primarily he is a social and political reformer.

 Voltaire and Rousseau both are the guiding lights of the French revolution, yet they are utterly different in thinking and are like the North and the South poles. While Voltaire was an intellectual that gave primacy to the mind, Rousseau went by his heart and gave primacy to feeling. 

Descartes said “I think, therefore I am” while Rousseau said “I feel-therefore I am”

Rousseau was French but was born at Geneva in 1712. His father used to make clocks. A few days after Rousseau was born his mother died. His father never bothered about Rousseau and did not educate him.

 From his 10^th year onwards Rousseau did many odd jobs. When he was working for an engraver, his boss used to call him lazy, dumb and a thief and used to beat him up badly. Rousseau then actually started stealing, made friends with bad company and used to roam aimlessly.

One day he escaped from his home and went to Turin in Italy. There one rich woman named Madame De Warens gave him shelter, became his mistress and made him a Catholic. She made Rousseau learn grammar and music. He stayed with her for sometime but then ran away. He then worked as an engraver and music teacher for sometime but could not earn enough money to fill his stomach. So he came back to Madame De Warens again. He stayed with her from 1733 to 1740. With her association he also learnt manners and culture. After sometime she got fed up with him and left him. 

He went to Paris and then joined as a secretary to the French ambassador in Venice. His temperament was very fickle and he used to fight with everyone. In the process, he fought with the ambassador himself. His anger on his boss turned into a deep anger on the government, rich people, landlords and the contemporary societal structure. 

He used to write something but those did not get him any fame. He had introductions and friendships with intellectuals. Diderot was the editor of French Encyclopedia and an extremely famous writer and one of the philosophers and intellectuals who influenced the French Revolution. He was a friend of Rousseau. 

The year was 1749; Rousseau was on way to the prison to visit Diderot who was jailed there on account of writing against the government. On the way he purchased a newspaper which carried an advertisement given by one academy. The ad stated that it would reward anyone who wrote the best essay on whether Arts & Science have improved human life. That was a turning point in Rousseau’s life. 

He started thinking about it and feelings flooded him in multitudes. Rousseau writes about his state then thus:

 “My mind was lit up with 1000 bright lamps. Feelings in innumerable groups permeated in my mind. I felt an indescribable mental disturbance. My state has become like that of a drunkard who is intoxicated and was not able to control himself” 

Unable to control himself, he sat down beneath a tree on the side of the road. When he thought about the state of man his feelings of exasperation came in droves. He felt tragic and he felt submerged with immense feeling and excitement.   

Slowly his excitement cooled down. He wondered as to why he was sitting beneath the tree. He found that the front side of his coat was filled with his tears. Unknowingly he has cried for all that time.

He put all his feelings into the essay and sent it to the academy and won the first prize. With this he became famous and entire France knew him. 

But Rousseau had that fickle mentality, so fame and money did not give him any solace. All the time he was yearning for something, and was full of restlessness and unhappiness.

 With his fame he got friendships with the elite of Paris. At the same time he fell in love with a servant girl at the hotel where he stayed. She was illiterate and on top of that she was ugly looking. No one could understand why he loved her and had 5 children by her. Rousseau felt that if he raised those children they would grow to become terrible like him, so as and when they were born he joined them off in an orphanage.

 We can see there is psychologically wrong with Rousseau, yet despite his lack of education he was brilliant, which was perhaps the reason why he got all that fame.  

In 1752 a musical play written by Rousseau was exhibited in front of the French king and it was appreciated by everyone. Impressed by Rousseau, Louis XV offered him a pension, but Rousseau was not interested and he did not even go to the king’s court to collect it. This despite the fact that he was in dire need of money then.   

 In 1755 the academy which gave the first place to Rousseau in the earlier essay competition, held another contest but this time Rousseau missed the prize. But that essay “A Discourse of the Origins of Inequality” gave him great fame.   

 Rousseau had the fame but he is not one to encash it, so poverty followed him but despite his idiosyncrasies it appears that Rousseau had a good following among the rich women of France. One such was Madame De Epine who gave shelter to Rousseau and his lover. As usual Rousseau had a fight with the Madame and had to leave. At the same time he picked up a quarrel with Diderot who was a great admirer of his. So he left Paris and lived in a cottage in the middle of a forest.

 In this cottage he wrote 2 books which brought him enduring fame. The first was a book on a new education system known as “Emille”. It is amazing that Rousseau who was never educated should write such a book on education and the world should accept it heartily. This alone sets out his brilliance; despite a bad childhood, a bad education, continuous fickle nature and self made poverty still that spark was there in him. The other book of course is the explosive “Social Contract”.   

 Half the time Rousseau was in a half mad neurotic state. He felt that someone is plotting to kill him and everyone is talking about him only. He had a persecution mania.

 His Social Contract was banned by the Government. Orders were out to arrest him and he ran away to Prussia. Frederick the Great of Prussia gave him asylum there but he could not stay put there either.

 David Hume then took him to London and gave him shelter. He had interactions with Burke, Boswell and the Prime Minister Walpole. The English people laid the red carpet for him. King George III offered him pension which was again refused by him.

 Finally he had a fight with Hume who was his great fan. Rousseau as is his wont felt that Hume was trying to get him murdered and ran back to Paris.

 In Paris he was earning money from copying music notes with which he was able to eke out a living somehow. Again someone provided him with shelter and gave him a house to live in. Finally in dire poverty he died of ill health in 1778 at the age of .

 What can one say about such a man? He had nothing initially but later he could have got whatever he wanted but did not will so. He became so famous in entire Europe, yet he died in dire poverty. That is the irony of Rousseau’s life. Perhaps, he was born to suffer and did not like happiness at all. So finally when he died what he got wanted which were unhappiness, poverty and ill health? No one would want those, but that is Voltaire. After saying all that, who can doubt his brilliance that shone through all that strife and turmoil of his life, that spark that lit the way for communism?  

He was not educated but he wrote a book that is the source for revision of the education system all over the world. In French literature his fame is equaled by very few. He wrote great novels, plays, musical plays, essays on political and social issues, autobiography etc. totaling some 47 tomes. 

He never learnt music, yet he worked as a music teacher. He has introduced changes in the musical notation. Diderot made Rousseau write all the matter on music in his French Encyclopedia.

 He gained name as a great intellectual and humanist but at the same time his personality was detested. So Rousseau was actually not one but 2 individuals rolled into one.

Rousseau said that a man should live as his heart says, and he followed that dictum to the last “t”.

 

What did Rousseau’s philosophy say?                                                                        

 As per Rousseau, man has got corrupted because of knowledge and developing an artificial civilization. Rousseau says man was originally very nice but the society and civilization spoilt him. 

In the essay to the Dujan academy which won him the 1^st prize as well as fame all over France, Rousseau demolished the value of sciences and arts as well in life. He said they are the reason for the downfall of man.

 Rousseau visualized a state of nature when the ancient humans lived happily without any botheration. That man ate whatever is available and thereafter just relaxed and enjoyed himself. He was friendly with everyone else. That was the age of truth. 

But that age did not persist for long. When man instead of being a part of nature, tried to control nature, not being happy with whatever he had, then itself his downfall has started. Rousseau felt iron and rice (agriculture) are the main elements that helped the downfall of man. 

With increase in knowledge the higher classes and lower classes in men evolved. Differences like stronger, weaker, rich & poor surfaced. Inequality increased. The stronger oppressed the weak and the rich person oppressed the poor person and made them slaves.   

Civilization made man corrupt. In those societies living away from civilization one does not find jealousy and unfairness. Man is freer in uncivilized societies than in civilized ones. 

In the age of truth when civilization did not touch him, man was a noble savage. He loved freedom, was peace loving and was able to get food without the need to do much work. He led a happy and sedentary life. 

But when civilized he is always running around, always craving for something, doing hard work and making money and adding to it, serving the rich people imagining that in that slavery lies his comfort, not living as per his wishes but living for someone else’s opinions and leads a terrible life.   

Individual property is the root cause of all evils. No individual should have enough money to buy another individual. No individual should be so poor as to sell himself to others. 

The earth does not belong to any single person. If on the same day when a person claimed rights on a piece of land by fencing it, if someone removed them and said this belongs to everyone and not to any particular person then it would have saved mankind from innumerable murders, atrocities and misfortunes that mankind has fallen into. All this Rousseau wrote in his “Social Contract” with great feeling. As per Locke sovereignty lies in the kings, Hobbes says it is in the Parliament comprising of peoples representatives, now Rousseau says it is universal to everyone individually. 

Now Rousseau felt that tyranny is the worst form of government. Worst vermin gather round a king and we can hardly find anything good in them. 

At the same time Rousseau also did not favor absolute democracy. Such a system works only when the country is small. When there are inequalities, lobbies, money power and luxurious living such a democracy does not work. In such a democracy work does not completed and discussions dominate. 

The best form of Government is elected Aristocracy but that should not be hereditary. Rousseau says whenever a government acts against the welfare of the society and tries to suppress people, then they have a right to rebel. Rousseau says revolutions rejuvenate society and human life.